Nano dan Anoda Baterai:Tinjauan

Memperkenalkan Anoda LTO

Sejauh ini, kita telah berbicara tentang dua jenis anoda grafit dan anoda paduan (silikon). Anoda lain yang sangat populer adalah anoda dengan senyawa Li4Ti5O12, yang disingkat LTO. Anoda ini seperti grafit interkalasi [29, 124.125.126.127]. Gambar 16 menunjukkan struktur dan reaksi jenis anoda ini. Anoda LTO memiliki kapasitas terbatas 175 mAh/g (dibandingkan dengan 300 grafit dan 4000 silikon). Tegangan anoda ini juga sekitar 1,5 V dibandingkan dengan logam litium menurut Gambar 17 (semakin rendah tegangan anoda, semakin tinggi tegangan baterai). This high voltage and low capacity both make this anode have very low energy, but it is still one step ahead of silicon in commercial terms. One of the most important features of this anode is the safety issue, because in electric vehicles there are unpredictable conditions, and the other is the long cycle life, and finally its power [72, 73, 128,129,130].

Shows the structure and entry of lithium ion in LTO along with its reaction [74]

a Displays the nanostructure discussed including Nano primary nanoparticles, b charge–discharge curve for ordinary micro particles, and c for a-shaped particles [74]

Due to the fact that the voltage of this anode is high, it is in the range of electrolyte stability according to Fig. 17, so SEI is not formed. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 17, there is enough space for lithium ions in this composition and it does not change volume, while even in graphite, some volume change is seen due to the entry and exit of lithium. Unlike the previous two anodes, lithium ions (not lithium atoms) are stored in this anode, and the oxidation reaction is due to the conversion of titanium to 3-valent titanium, not to a change in lithium capacity [28, 74, 75, 131].

This battery, because it has neither SEI nor volume change, maintains the capacity well and has a very long cycle life (more than graphite) of about 20,000 cycles. Because it is an oxide compound and is very safe due to the lack of volume change. Because it does not have SEI, its power is not bad either, only its lithium ion diffusion coefficient is low and its electron conductivity is poor. To solve this problem, they provide LTO nanostructures. Because this anode did not have SEI from the beginning, when it becomes Nano, it does not have the problem of forming more SEI, so it does not have more nanomaterial activity [32, 35,36,37].

It has been observed that nanoparticles cause the LTO anode to charge and discharge within 5 min (12C). To prepare the nanostructure, first titanium oxide nanostructure is prepared and then reacted with a lithium source material when heated. This is also an advantage of LTO, as the preparation of TiO₂ nanostructures is very popular. Due to the problem of low volumetric density and agglomeration of nanomaterials, micron secondary particles made from nanoscale primary particles are more useful [33, 38, 58, 59].

Figure 17 shows part an of this nanostructure. As can be seen, from the controlled community of smaller particles measuring 10 nm, larger micron particles are formed. According to the comparison of parts b and c in Fig. 17, it is quite clear that this nanostructure is superior to ordinary micron particles, because it has less capacity and potential (especially in discharge). From this nanostructured anode, a battery is made and it is observed that this battery is superior to the battery with graphite anode both in terms of cycle life and power, which is not given due to the brevity of these curves [75]. The benefits of Nano-LTO have been well documented in many articles, but what makes it stand out is an important discussion of proper engineering of the structure, proper synthesis method, and how to use the conductive material to improve conductivity for further improvement. The future will be talked about. In addition, it is not disputed that nanotechnology is useful for LTO, but many of the phenomena that occur at the nanoscale for LTO are discussed so that some are not fully understood.

Another phenomenon that occurs at the nanoscale is the change in charge–discharge curves for the LTO anode. This anode provides a constant voltage over a wide range of capacities (red box in Fig. 18). When LTO ions are Nano, the constant voltage range decreases until after a critical limit (in the range of a few nanometers) there is no longer a constant voltage range [76].

Shows the linear curve range at the LTO anode in the charge–discharge axis [75]

One of the things that happens on the surface is the insertion of more lithium ions into the surface layers. In the surface after insertion, we reach the formula Li_8.5 Ti₅ O₁₂ , which is 1.5 mol more than the inner layers with the formula Li₇ Ti₅ O₁ , but in the micron material, because the percentage of surface is not high, it shows its effect, but for Nano, because the amount of surface is large, the effects are large. There are several on the charge–discharge curve.

TiO₂ Anode

There is also a TiO₂ anode from the LTO family. These anodes are easier to synthesize, and because they do not want to react with heat-induced lithium ion precursors, they do not have heat-induced problems such as nanomaterial growth. In addition, according to the chemical formula, titanium oxide has a capacity of twice the amount of 335 mAh/g (LTO). The general response of these anodes is \({\text{TiO}}_{2} + x{\text{Li}}^{ + } + xe^{ - } \leftrightarrow {\text{Li}}_{x} {\text{TiO}}_{2} .\)

TiO₂ has four types of phases or crystallographic structures (different atomic arrangements) known as Brocket, Anastasi, Rutile, and (TiO₂ (B). The Brocket phase does not matter to the battery. Antara and rutile, which are very popular phases, are important as anodes. Phase (TiO₂ (B) performs better than others due to its atomic open space and suitable channel for ion transport, and is the most important [75, 76, 132,133,134,135,136].

If we consider the theoretical capacity based on the chemical formula (one mole of lithium ion per mole of TiO₂ ), it is equal to the above value, but based on the phase and position that can be placed according to the lithium ion crystal lattice, different theoretical capacities for different phases have been reported; for example, for anisate, according to network sites, the half-capacity is high, 0.5 mol of lithium ion per mole of TiO₂ , 167 mAh/g.

Because all of these phases have poor ionic conductivity, the nanoscale is very effective in increasing both power and capacity. What is interesting is that the nanostructured capacity of Anastasi is more than the theoretical capacity based on the position of the network, but it is definitely less than the theoretical capacity of Formula 334 in all phases. Rutile in micron mode can only store 0.1 mol of lithium ion per grid unit. In rutile, lithium locations are located throughout the network, but the diffusion coefficient in the direction of the c -axis is one order of magnitude greater than that of the ab plate [137,138,139,140,141]. The lithium atom penetrates well in the direction of the c -axis, but must be diffused throughout the space by penetrating the ab plane, and because the diffusion velocity is low in the ab plane, lithium ions accumulate in the c channel, causing a charge repulsive force. Lithium ion positive is generated. This repulsive force prevents more ions from entering the network. As an interesting result of the Nano effect, it has been shown that when the dimensions of rutile become Nano, the capacity reaches 0.8 mol of lithium ion, which has a reversible capacity during different cycles, which reduces the penetration distance and the effect of its quadratic power [142,143,144,145,146]. There is no repulsive force. Figure 19 shows the charge and discharge curves and the cycle life for rutile bulk (micron), commercial rutile micro particles, and rutile nanowires. As can be seen, nanowires show good cyclic longevity and capacity. The shape also confirms that the shape of the nanomaterials also affects the performance of the anode. Morphology such as nanoparticles, nanowires, etc. differ in both capacity and life cycle and power, but the type of morphology alone is not decisive but the geometry of the structure that determines the performance (in the future about the geometry of the structure for all active materials for example, nanowires connected to a current collector, nanowires mixed with graphene, and insulated nanowires each present different results. In addition, there are test conditions and C rate and many other factors [77]. Phase (TiO₂ (B), which is newer than other phases, offers the best power and capacity due to its suitable channels for lithium ion transport [147,148,149,150,151]. Figure 20 shows the structure of the penetration site. The capacitance can be significantly increased. This phase offers the best power and capacity among all titanium anodes including LTO, so that by Nano partying it in just 4.5 s, the anode can be charged or discharged with a capacity of 73% of theory. We do not have volume change in this anode either.

a Charge–discharge curve for the first time, b cycle life [77].

Showing the atomic structure of the phase (TiO₂ (B) [77]

Quasi-capacitive Capacity

So far, it has been discussed about the storage capacity of lithium ions in the form of a degree in the nuclear network, and this capacity is improved in the nanoscale due to the reduction of the penetration distance, and so on [152,153,154,155]. But one of the interesting phenomena that occurs for these anodes at the nanoscale is the storage of lithium ions at the surface due to the large surface-to-volume ratio. This type of storage is different from the insert and alloy capacity mentioned so far. This type of storage is very fast because it does not require penetration, and also because it does not create stress and the like, it has the best cycle life and power compared to other lithium storage methods [156,157,158]. Of course, this type of capacity generates less energy. This capacity is discussed in more detail in the topic of super capacitors. The Fig. 21 shows a comparison between the storage capacity of LTO capacity in three different Nano dimensions [78]. According to Fig. 21 in small Nano dimensions, this capacity is significant and decreases significantly with increasing dimensions. It should be noted that capacitive capacitance is not only related to titanium oxide compounds but is also present in many other active substances that are mentioned when introducing them.

Demonstration of input and super capacitor capacities in titanium oxide [78]

Introduction of Exchange Anodes

So far, we have talked about two types of insert electrodes and alloys. The third type of electrode operation is based on a conversion reaction. Figure 22 shows the mechanism and reaction of this type of electrode. In this form, M (or Me) is an intermediate element that is oxidized, and X is an anion such as oxygen, sulfur, and the like [159,160,161]. The advantage of these anodes is that for every MxXy unit, n lithium ions (n more than one) are involved in the reaction, whereas in the graphite insert anodes we see one lithium ion for every 6 carbon atoms stored in titanium compounds. A maximum of one lithium ion is stored per TiO₂ formula unit. But in the exchange anode, for example, for CoO and FeO, the value of n is equal to 2, and in Co₃ O₄ , the value of n is equal to 8. Figure 23 shows a number of exchangeable oxide anodes with their reaction and capacity [22, 30, 55].

Shows the structure and entry of lithium ion with its reaction [22]

Shows the reaction and capacity of a number of conversion oxide anodes [30, 55]

Exchange Anode Problems

Exchange anodes are very similar to alloy anodes, as alloys have problems with volume change, fragmentation, and SEI formation. In these anodes the ionic and electron conduction is low, and in addition the exchange rate is slow. This low speed leads to high potential during charging and discharging. At these potentials, there is a large difference between the charging and discharging voltages, called hysteresis, which is shown in Fig. 24 with a red arrow. This figure shows that in the first stage of lithium extraction, the anode behavior is significantly different from the next stage of charge and discharge. The hysteresis in this type of anode is up to one volt, while in the graphite and LTO anode it is about 0.2 V. This hysteresis is mostly due to activation polarization [78, 79].

Show charge–discharge curves of exchange anodes [79]

Nano Sizing Effects

Figure 25 shows the lithium ionization behavior (in the test mode, against lithium metal) for anodes made of fine nanoparticles (20 nm) and micro-nanoparticles (500 nm) of iron oxide (SEM) images of these particles in Fig. 26. Available it can be seen that the capacity of the Nano anode is slightly higher. More importantly, it can be seen that the charge–discharge behavior of these two anodes is very different from each other, which is examined in Fig. 26. Figure 26 shows the charge–discharge curves in different cycles as well as the cycle life for the same samples in Fig. 25 to determine the reason for the difference in charge–discharge curves in Fig. 25. Note that instead of capacity, lithium that enters and leaves (which, according to the arguments, represents capacity) is used. In the charge–discharge curves of Fig. 26, lithium ionization continued only up to 1 mol because its purpose was to investigate the behavior in this range of lithium ions. As can be seen, the effective surface mass for the material is only 2 m ² /g while for the Nano it has an effective surface area of 60 m ² /g, which indicates how much higher the effective surface area is at the Nano. The difference between Nano and Nano performance is also quite clear. As shown in Fig. 26, the amount of reversible lithium (which can be removed during charging) for Nano is much higher than the corresponding amount for bulk. This shows that the capacity that can be recovered after the initial charge is much better in Nano than in micro. Also, according to the same figure, in the next consecutive charge-discharges, the amount of lithium entering and leaving is less than 0.25 (from 0.75 to 1), while for Nano, the amount of lithium entering and leaving is more than 0.5 (the amount of lithium ion). In the composition it has changed from the range of less than 0.5 ions to 1 ion), according to this, the capacity offered in Nano is much more than bulk. In the micron-sized anode of Fe₂ O₃ (hematite), before the exchange reaction begins, about 0.1 mol of lithium ion per mole of oxide compound can be stored in the lattice, but above this critical limit, the exchange reaction takes place; on the other hand, when we increase the dimensions of iron oxide particles to 20 nm, the amount of lithium stored in degrees reaches 1 mol, which causes a volume change of only about 1%. Of course, about 0.5 mol is reversible (Fig. 25). In fact, the type of storage mechanism (input, exchange, etc.) changes and the type of mechanism affects the shape of the charge–discharge curve. The above paragraph indicates that when the oxide dimensions enter the Nano field, the storage mechanism is also affected. So far it has been said that Nano makes volume change easier without failure, but here it can be seen that even Nano has reduced the amount of volume change from a few percent for the exchange reaction to one percent for a degree reaction. The reason for this change is the storage mechanism for iron oxide due to thermodynamic problems. The opposite happens for the Co₃ O₄ anode because it is kinetic and is related to the current density (the current density is obtained by dividing the current by the surface); when the current is constant, in the Nano-dimensions, because the surface is higher, the current density decreases and the Co₃ O₄ anode shows exchange behavior, but in the micro, due to the high current density, the anode shows the insertion behavior [76,77,78,79].

Demonstration of lithium ionization for n -Fe₂ O₃ and micro-M-Fe₂ O₃ [80]

Display of SEM images, charge–discharge curves and cycle life for Nano-iron oxide and bulk [80]

It can be seen from Fig. 26 that at the nanoscale, the cycle life is also much better than bulk. The reason for the improvement of these expressed properties is the ease of volume change and release of stress, ionic and electronic transitions are easier due to the reduction of the penetration distance, which was expressed in this series of articles. Due to high hysteresis, less attention has been paid to compounds with hysteresis [22, 51,52,53,54, 80].

Nanomaterials in Batteries

Nanomaterials have been widely applied in the life sciences, information technology, the environment, and other related fields. Recently, nanostructured materials have also attracted attention for application in energy storage devices, especially for those with high charge/discharge current rates such as lithium ion batteries. The development of next-generation energy storage devices with high power and high energy density is key to the success of electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EVs and HEVs, respectively), which are expected to at least partially replace conventional vehicles and help solve the problems of air pollution and climate change. These energy storage technologies will rely on innovative materials science, i.e. developing electrode materials capable of being charged and discharged at high current rates. Generally, the potential advantages of nanostructured active electrode materials can be summarized as follows:new reactions can be used that are not possible with bulk materials; a larger electrode/electrolyte contact area, leading to higher charge/discharge rates; short path lengths for both electronic and Li ion transport (permitting operation even with low electronic or low Li ion conductivity, or at higher power); etc. Here, we review some recent experimental results that show the advantages of nanostructured active electrode materials [147]. Table 2 summarizes the nanotechnologies that are used to produce nanomaterials, such as mechanical ball milling, chemical vapour deposition, the template method, electrochemical deposition, hydrothermal reaction, dehydration, sintering, pulsed laser deposition, ultrasound, sol–gel synthesis, and micro emulsion.

The first group of applications of nanotechnology in batteries is itself divided into two categories:the first group nanoscale the active substance in the electrode, the second group use nanotechnology to improve the performance of electrodes (cathode or anode) by adding nanomaterials other than the active substance, or the use of Nano coatings. For example, Nano-dimensional additives such as Nano carbons, graphene, carbon nanotubes, etc. have better electron conduction, or the use of Nano-thick coatings on the active material to prevent unwanted reactions with the electrolyte, stress modulation, provide stability and …. for it. For example, for a LiFePO₄ cathode, the amount of electron conductivity is poor. Conductivity is improved by using a conductive carbon coating on its particles or by using a conductive carbon material as an additive, A Nano-thick coating of oxide is used [83, 94, 172,173,174,175,176,177]. For example, for a LiFePO₄ cathode, the amount of electron conduction is poor, Conductivity is improved by using a conductive carbon coating on its particles or by using a conductive carbon material as an additive, or the LiCoO₂ cathode is unstable at high currents in the vicinity of the electrolyte, using a Nano-thick oxide coating to stabilize it [162, 163, 178, 179]. If we want to illustrate the field of nanotechnology in this category with an example, in the same LiFePO₄ cathode it has been shown that carbon coating increases conductivity and consequently power, capacity, etc., but one of the areas of research is how to create this coating. Be cheap, effective, etc.; therefore, research in the field of synthesis methods is very important. On the other hand, how to add the same coating and additives to be more effective, so the engineering and architecture of nanostructures is one of the important areas of research and the preparation of these engineered structures is also an interesting issue. Consider Fig. 27 to clarify the matter. This figure shows two types of Nano-engineered structures for the LiFePO₄ cathode that use carbon nanotubes to improve conductivity. In addition to differences in performance, each of these structures has a different synthesis method, which indicates the importance of synthesis.

a , b With carbon nanotube core and LiFePO₄ wall, and Figure c LiFePO₄ nanoparticles attached to carbon nanotube [3, 93]

Silicon has attracted tremendous attentions as one of the most promising candidates for the next-generation Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Compared to the traditional graphite anode, it has many obvious advantages such as large capacity, high abundance and environmental friendliness [1,2,3,4]. Unfortunately, due to the huge volume expansion (~ 300%) in lithiation, silicon particles are pulverized and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers formed on their surface are unstable. Therefore, the long-term cycling stability of silicon anode is poor [5,6,7,8]. Moreover, the low intrinsic conductivity of Si causes unsatisfying rate-capability [9,10,11,12]. Thus, a large amount of Si/metal (e.g., Ag, Cu, Al, Sn) composites have been developed to solve the low conductivity [13,14,15,16]. However, the large volume expansion cannot be relieved effectively. On the other hand, carbon Nano layers are coated on the electrode materials to increase their conductivity, enhance their mechanical strength and provide them stable interfaces with electrolyte. Therefore, various conformal carbon layer coated silicon (Si@C) nanostructures are developed. For example, Si@C with core–shell structure are formed by pyrolyzing various precursors (e.g., pitch, glucose) to coat carbon layers on the pre-prepared silicon nanoparticles [17,18,19,20,21].

Cui et al. designed a hierarchical pomegranate-structured Si@C composite and a nonfilling carbon-coated porous silicon micro particle via the pyrolysis of resorcinol–formaldehyde resin (RF), respectively [23, 82]. And Yu et al. prepared double carbon shells coated Si nanoparticles via chemical vapor deposition (CVD), with acetylene as carbon source [24]. All these designs provide sufficient voids to allow large volume changes of Si during the lithiation/delithiation. However, most of Si@C composites were prepared in separate steps by either pre-coating or post coating carbon on silicon nanomaterials. It led to a complicated preparation strategy.

Continued interest in high performance lithium-ion batteries has driven the development of new electrode materials and their synthesis techniques, often targeting scalable production of high quality nanoceramics (< 100 nm in diameter), which may offer performance improvements. However, there are a number of hurdles, which need to be overcome to move away from current batch synthesis methods that offer poor reproducibility or lack of control over crystallite attributes, particularly at larger scale syntheses. Continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis (CHFS) processes are a promising route for the direct and controlled manufacture of Li-ion battery electrode nanoceramics. Such processes use superheated water and metal salt mixtures as reagents. In a typical CHFS reaction, a feed of supercritical water (above the critical point of water (TC = 374 °C and Pc = 22.1 MPa), is rapidly mixed in an engineered mixer [1] with a metal salt/base aqueous precursor feed (at ambient temperature and the same pressure), resulting in rapid formation of the corresponding nanocrystallite oxide in the water. This nucleation dominated reaction occurs as a result of the metal salts being supersaturated upon mixing with sc-water and also instantly being hydrolysed and dehydrated under these exotic reaction conditions. The nascent nanocrystallite metal oxide stream in water is then cooled in process and then can be constantly collected from the exit of the CHFS process as an aqueous nanoparticle slurry at ambient temperature. The cleaned crystallites (e.g. via dialysis) can be obtained as a wet solid and then freeze-dried to retain maximum surface area and reduce agglomeration. Compared to batch hydrothermal syntheses, CHFS type processes typically produce very small nanoparticles (< 10 nm) with a narrow size distribution [2,3,4]. Additionally, CHFS processes are highly scalable (> 1 kg per hour in the lab of the UCL authors [5]) and can be used to make high quality nanoparticles at scale, with little or no significant variation between those made on the smaller CHFS laboratory scale process.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements at a scan rate of 0.05 mV s ⁻¹ in the range of 0.05–3 V versus Li/Li ⁺ , are presented in Fig. 28. A pair of cathodic and anodic peaks were observed in the potential range 1.5 and 2.3 V versus Li/Li ⁺ , relating to Li-ion insertion into and extraction from the interstitial octahedral site of TiO₂ (see equation) [81]. Under normal circumstances, a two-phase reaction is expected to occur during lithiation with phase equilibrium of the Li-poor Li_0.01 TiO₂ (tetragonal) phase and the Li-rich Li_0.55 TiO₂ (orthorhombic) phase [19, 20]. The detected specific current peak decreased with higher amount of Sn, thereby reducing the amount of pure TiO₂ . The pure TiO₂ sample showed virtually no electrochemical activity in the potential range between 1.3 and 1 V versus Li/Li ⁺ during the first cycle. The increasing specific current during the first cycle between 1 and 0.05 V versus Li/Li ⁺ , is attributed to solid electrolyte interface (SEI) formation (electrolyte destruction) at lower potentials [13]. There was also likely to be substantive SEI formation at the crystallite surfaces of the Sn-doped materials compared to the undoped TiO₂ , as there was significant electrochemical activity in the range of 1.3 to 1 V versus Li/Li ⁺ for the former. However, as the surface area decreases with higher Sn-loading, the initial capacity loss due to the SEI formation may be expected to decrease. The general trend in fact showed that with higher Sn-loading, the initial irreversible capacity loss increased (from 363 mAh g ⁻¹ for the pure TiO₂ and 467 mAh g ⁻¹ for Ti_0.85 Sn_0.15 O₂ ).

Cyclic voltammograms for the 1st and 2nd cycles for the as-prepared Nano-powder in the potential range of 0.05 and 3 V versus Li/Li ⁺ for an applied scan rate of 0.05 mV s ⁻¹ for a undoped anatase TiO₂ , b Ti_0.94 Sn_0.06 O₂ , c Ti_0.89 Sn_0.11 O₂ , and d Ti_0.85 Sn_0.15 O₂ . e Specific current versus potential of the 2nd cycle for all materials at lower potentials. The specific current was calculated by taking into account the active material mass loadings [81]

Conclusion

1. 1.

   This article discusses silicon anodes as a representative of alloy anodes. It was observed that the only solution to solve the shredding problem is to use nanotechnology. In this paper, the importance of nanomaterial synthesis was expressed. In summary, how to use nanomaterials with different morphologies to solve the problem and improve power. Although various morphologies were discussed, there was no discussion of structural engineering and the use of carbon conductive materials, which will be discussed in future articles. This was one of the methods of establishing electrical bonding for nanoparticles. There are various structures to prevent the nanoparticles from breaking, the art of which is to create different geometries and the method of their preparation.

2. 2.

   This article discusses SEI, which is one of the most important topics in most anodes and some high voltage cathodes. This article discussed the problem of alloy anode fragmentation, while which is due to the continuous growth of SEI. It turned out that in order to have a proper cycle life, this problem must be overcome. According to the given examples, using a suitable design at the nanoscale, in addition to providing free volume change of silicon, this volume change does not occur in contact with the electrolyte.

3. 3.

   The carbon coating on the anode can increase the conductivity from 13–110 to 2.05 S/cm. Doping can enhance performance by increasing the conductivity of electrons and even ions and providing more space within the network along with Nano sizing, which may be appropriate for new projects, which is more a Nano-topic in Nano synthesis than how it accompanies matter. Synthesize with Nano-dimensional doping until there is a discussion about the effect of Nano on improving anode performance. This article discusses titanium oxide anodes, which is one of the most commercially important anodes. It was found that nanotechnology greatly improves the performance of these anodes. Nano sizing has also been shown to affect even the electrochemical and chemical-physical nature (such as charge–discharge curve deformation and greater capacity in surface layers).

4. 4.

   In this paper, exchange anodes are introduced and their complex operation is described. It was found that many problems, such as alloy anodes, can be solved by Nano damaging the active material. The special effects of Nano were expressed as a change in mechanism.

Availability of Data and Materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.